An Academic Platform for Spreading Ancient Chinese Arts and Crafts 

Abstract: The characteristics of Cantonese-style furniture in function, form, construction, materials, and craftsmanship are all products of a specific historical time and space. Based on the investigation of social history, this study uses historical materials and image analysis, interviews with inheritors, 3D scanning, digital reconstruction, dismantling, and other methods to explore the characteristics of the structure of Cantonese-style furniture and analyze its causes by combining elements such as function, form, materials, and craftsmanship. Thus, we can further understand and comprehend Cantonese-style furniture from the perspective of the integration of Chinese and Western cultures and the characteristics of Lingnan local culture and provide evidence for its design and production.

Lifestyle, New Varieties, and Overall New Structures

The lifestyle change is one of the manifestations of the spread of Western influences to the East （西风东渐）. During the late Qing Dynasty, Guangzhou, as an important region for transportation between China and foreign countries, underwent new changes in its daily lifestyle under the influence of the official and business classes. New concepts and behaviors led to the emergence of new varieties of furniture. According to incomplete statistics by the author, the new varieties included at least: 1. Bed type: half bed, Western-style bed; 2.Cabinets: arch-style Bo Gu cabinets, wardrobes, and wardrobes; 3. Several types of tables: connected tables, stacked tables, round tables, independent tables, writing tables; 4. Chair and stool categories: armchair, sofa swivel chair, bench, public chair, X-shaped chair, lounge chair; other items such as dressing tables and dressing mirrors were gradually appearing. The new furniture variety had a completely new overall structure. Here are just a few examples to observe its new construction:

                                1                                                                                              2

Figure 1. 3D scanning of the Cantonese-style round dining table produced by Guangzhou Mingjiangju; 

Figure 2. 3D scan of the treasure tripod sofa at Guangzhou Songyuan Redwood Museum.

                               3                                                                                                           4

Figure 3. Wardrobe (Five Constant Acid Branch Furniture from Qing Dynasty Cantonese-style Furniture by Cai Yi'an); 

Figure 4. The furniture is a 3D scanned "Qilin Long Sofa" made by Guangzhou Donglang Redwood Craft Co., Ltd.  

The Cantonese-style round table (Figure 1) is divided into two sets of components: a tabletop and a bracket. The tabletop is composed of a surface edge, a tooth plate, a marble core plate, and a bottom crossbeam, which together form a whole and provide a large area of load-bearing; the bracket is connected by four legs, and upper and lower crossbeams form a whole, with the four legs recessed inward. Compared to the clear hierarchy of traditional Chinese square tables, circular dining tables reflect a more relaxed and close relationship between people and furniture, as well as between people. The combination of chairs, stools, and tables is more flexible.

“Cantonese-style” bench. The Cantonese-style bench (Figure 2) is a new kind of furniture created by Guangdong craftsmen inspired by Western furniture and integrating the characteristics of Chinese armchairs and Arhat beds. The height and depth of the bench are similar to that of a single chair, but the width is larger, allowing multiple people to sit together, sit, lean, or lie down.

In the process of development, benches gradually became the center of hall furniture due to their increasingly important functions and larger sizes, evolving into larger-sized long sofas in modern times (Figure 3). Benches or long sofas also provided possibilities for more public space and closer interpersonal relationships. At the same time, the diversification of its usage also reflects the various needs of home space.

Figure 5. Comparison between visible tenons and hidden tenons

1-3 are from Wang Shi-xiang's Research on Ming-style Furniture; 4 is the Ming Dynasty Huanghuali wood rose chairs collected by the Shanghai Museum; 5 is the Ming Dynasty Huanghuali carved backrest circular chairs in the collection of Shanghai Museum; 6 is the Ming Dynasty Huanghuali wooden grid collected by the Palace Museum; 7-9 are the nave chairs made by Guangzhou Famous Craftsmen's Residence for this research project; 10-11 are the second level table produced by Guangzhou Gengsuantang for this research project.

                                        6                                                                                                                                                          7

Figure 6. The backrest of the Baoding Sofa in the collection of Guangzhou Songyuan Redwood Museum; 

Figure 7. The backrest of the "Qilin Long Sofa" made by Guangzhou Donglang Redwood Craft Co., Ltd.

Author Contribution

The co-authors declare that they jointly negotiated and wrote this article. 

Funding

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest  

The co-authors have declared that there are no conflicts of interest related to this research.

Introduction

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Guangzhou, a port city located in the core of Lingnan, entered its most prosperous period in history with the development of foreign trade, and was once known as the Southern Treasury of the Emperor. In a strong atmosphere of material and cultural exchange between China and foreign countries, regional styles with local names emerged in fields such as architecture, landscaping, ceramics, furniture, and clothing. Among them, Guang-zuo（广作）furniture originated in the late Ming Dynasty, flourished during the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong periods, and has been passed down to this day, including four categories: Ming style, Qing court style, Western style, and Cantonese-style. In the late Ming Dynasty, most Guang-zuo furniture imitated the Soochow -style (苏式, Suzhou, formerly known as Soochow). During the early to mid-Qing Dynasty, Guang-zuo furniture was primarily based on imperial court designs, characterized by opulence, grandeur, and magnificent presence. The export-oriented Western-style furniture（洋装家具）produced in Guang-zuo was designed according to European demands, integrating traditional Chinese elements with Baroque and Rococo styles. The Cantonese-style furniture that flourished in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China was a more mature style that incorporated various forms, intricate decorations, and exquisite freshness, showcasing the characteristics of Cantonese culture[1].

Current research on Cantonese-style furniture mainly focuses on aspects such as styling, decoration, and overall style, with relatively little research on its construction. In terms of what is denoted, construction is the sublimation of structure. Construction is a connected art that encompasses the meaning of technology; therefore, construction refers not only to the combination of components... "[2]. From the perspective of construction, artificial objects provide greater space for design research, both from a technical perspective and a social perspective. The construction of furniture includes two levels: functional organization and component connection. Due to changes in conditions, Cantonese-style furniture has its own characteristics in functional organization and component connection. This article is based on the Research on Cantonese-style furniture project jointly conducted by the Guangzhou Academy of Fine Arts and the Guangzhou Intangible Cultural Heritage Protection Center [3]. Social and historical investigation, historical materials and image analysis, interviews with inheritors, 3D scanning, digital reconstruction, and disassembly [4] are used to study the structural changes and objectives of Cantonese-style furniture by combining elements such as functionality, form, materials, and craftsmanship.

Social Factors Influencing the Development of Cantonese-Style Furniture

The formation, development, and prosperity of Cantonese-style furniture were all driven by specific temporal and spatial conditions. Specifically, the export of furniture in foreign trade, the procurement and production of furniture in the palace, and the consumption and use of local social classes were the main factors.

One Port Trade and Furniture Export

In addition, During the Qing Dynasty, Guangzhou served as a window to the outside world. In the 22nd year of the Qianlong reign, the Qing government restricted trade to only Guangzhou, giving it an exclusive advantage in foreign trade. Among the commodities exported in large quantities, furniture was a significant item. The two picture books, Guangdong Wuchang Sour Branch Furniture and Guangdong Wanquan Sour Branch Furniture（《广东五常酸枝家私》和《广东万全酸枝家私》）, passed down from the late Qing Dynasty, show the export situation of furniture at that time. The names Wuchang（五常） and Wanquan （万全）in the two picture books are respectively the names of two commercial firms. The interior pages mainly depict furniture styles, each with detailed size numbers. The cover and inner pages of the album are in both Chinese and English, and the dimensions are also marked in English, clearly for overseas customers to view and customize. Two picture books were printed, distributed, or used by foreign firms acting as agents, depicting nearly a thousand furniture styles together, demonstrating the prosperous export of furniture in the late Qing Dynasty and indirectly reflecting the flourishing of the design and production industry in Guangzhou driven by overseas demand. 

Procurement and Manufacturing Office of the Palace

From the prescript Referring to the system of the Han people and incorporating the traditions of the Jin people as appropriate（参汉酌金）to the postscript The Qing Dynasty inherited the system of the Ming Dynasty（清承明绪) [5], the early rulers of the Qing Dynasty adopted a two-way cultural policy of mutual gathering and also maintained a relatively open attitude towards material culture. Therefore, the use of objects and creations in the Qing court also reflected the mutual integration of grassland culture, Han culture, and even Western culture [6]. Cantonese-style furniture with a Western court style was highly admired by the court, and the elaborate and luxurious characteristics of Cantonese-style furniture matched its psychology and aesthetics. In the first year of the Qianlong reign, the Ministry of Internal Affairs officially established the Guangmuzuo（广木作）office and the Qing court recruited Guangdong carpenters to work in the palace. At the same time, the palace also arranged for local officials in Guangdong to customize furniture through procurement. Under the parallel development of procurement and manufacturing, Guangzhou became an important source of palace furniture, and its design and production scale and level developed accordingly.

Consumption and Usage of Local Social Classes

The prosperous industry and commerce accumulated a large amount of wealth for the local area, and the local consumer demand also created the prosperity of Cantonese-style furniture. The merchant class, who participated in foreign trade activities and had strong economic strength, was the leader of the new trend, especially the Thirteen Factories merchants with official and commercial status. They not only showcased their wealth and extravagance in building mansions and gardens, but also recruited skilled craftsmen who spared no expense in manufacturing furniture for display and use. By the end of the Qing Dynasty and the beginning of the Republic of China, the use of sourwood furniture was very common among the people in Guangzhou. Generally, well-off households had sourwood furniture, and public places such as guilds and ancestral halls often had complete sets of furnishings, with no less than ten pieces per set. The most popular public chair（公座椅）, which was improved from the Grand Tutor's Chair and the Official Hat Chair, reflected the popularization of Cantonese-style furniture. From urban to rural areas, from wealthy merchants to commoners, the consumption and use of various social classes in the local area further promoted the prosperity of Cantonese-style furniture.

Research on the Structural Characteristics of Cantonese-style Furniture: based on the Perspectives of Technology and Society

by  Shengfang Peng*     ,  Wang Liuzhuang  

Guangzhou Academy of Fine Arts, China

* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

JACAC. 2024, 2(2), 1-10; https://doi.org/10.59528/ms.jacac2024.1115a8

Received: October 04, 2024 | Accepted: November 08, 2024 | Published: November 15, 2024

Publication Statement: The Journal of Chinese Ancient Arts and Crafts focuses on arts research and cultural dissemination, but does not involve any political views or cultural biases.

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Aesthetic Concept, Furniture Form, and Connection Structure

As mentioned earlier, lifestyle drives new functional design, layout, and organizational methods, which are very evident in new furniture varieties, and in almost all furniture, the connection structure of components has also changed. The change in connection structure is a requirement for shaping furniture form under the influence of aesthetic standards. Taking Ming-style furniture as a reference point, the aesthetic concept of Cantonese-style furniture has shifted from appreciating the structural beauty of furniture to appreciating the beauty of form and decoration. If explanatory furniture is constructed in a simple linear form, and its connection method can clearly reflect the mortise and tenon structure, then Cantonese-style furniture, which advocates dynamic changes, makes the structure retreat behind the form in the shaping of curved forms and tries to hide the mortise and tenon as much as possible.

The tenon holes on the short side are chiseled through, and the tenons on both ends of the long side pass through the tenon holes. The exposed tenons are usually visible on the side of the frame of the table and chair; Cantonese-style furniture, on the other hand, often uses concealed mortises and tenons, meaning that the mortise and tenon holes are not drilled through and the tenon heads are hidden inside the mortise and tenon holes. Another example is the grid shoulder tenon（格肩榫）used for the T-shaped connection of column materials, which is commonly seen in the connection structure between seat legs and crossbeams, and can also demonstrate its structure. For example, the four horizontal beams at the bottom of Ming-style seats are often made using the method of rushing beams（赶枨）, which means that the front and rear beams are lower, the sides are slightly higher, or the front beam is lower, the sides are slightly higher, and the rear beam is the highest. The reason for this is the use of Ming tenons, which require the tenons of the two horizontal beams on one leg to be staggered with each other. A small number of Ming-style seats have also begun to avoid exposing tenons on the front of furniture, using concealed tenons on both sides of the horizontal beams and exposed tenons on the front and rear horizontal beams, or using large in and small out（大进小出） tenons to reduce the exposed area of the tenons [8]. 

In Cantonese-style seats, the bottom crossbar is often on the same horizontal plane, and the grid shoulder tenons connecting the legs and crossbar often use hidden tenons, even on the back of furniture. For example, the brown corner tenon（棕角榫） commonly used in furniture such as cabinets, tables, and bookshelves, which connect three columns, is also commonly used in Ming-style furniture to enhance its solidity due to its precise connection position. The Cantonese-style often uses dowel/hidden tenon joints, and the top of each column is chamfered at a 45-degree angle. After the combination, only the boundary line is visible, and there are no other structural traces.

Planting tenons（栽榫）is a special type of hidden tenon that was used before the Qing Dynasty. It is usually made of wood to prevent furniture horizontal tenons from breaking and is used for connection. Sometimes it is also used to connect detailed decorative components. Although Guangzhou style furniture is characterized by its wide and luxurious shape, with the pursuit of large-sized irregular forms and large-area carved decorations, not all components can be completed with complete large blocks of material due to the limitations of the size of the original wood. 

© 2024 by the authors. Published by Michelangelo-scholar Publish Ltd. 

This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND, version 4.0) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited and not modified in any way. 

References 

        蔡易安：《清代广式家具》[M].上海：世纪出版集团，2001. 第49-76页. [Baidu Scholar]

        [美]肯尼斯·弗兰姆普顿：《建构文化研究》[M].北京：中国建筑工业出版社，2012. 第4页. [Baidu Scholar]

    3. The project was completed in stages according to the plan. In the first phase, 16 classic style furniture pieces were selected and analyzed, some of which were 

        from the Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China, and some were made by contemporary inheritors. The first criterion for selection was to reflect the unique 

        lifestyle concepts and ways of life in the Guangfu region; secondly, it had continuity in function, form, decoration, construction, and craftsmanship, reflecting the 

        inheritance and development of Cantonese furniture.

    4. Digital reconstruction and disassembly have played a crucial role in furniture construction research as a new approach. The analysis of the internal structure 

        originally required physical disassembly for observation and recording, but it is difficult to execute in practical work because: on the one hand, most of the 

        Cantonese-style furniture passed down from the Qing Dynasty to the Republic of China has become cultural relics or collections, and disassembly can cause 

        irreparable damage; on the other hand, in the modern furniture production process, craftsmen began to use adhesives such as fish glue based on mortise and 

        tenon joints to enhance the stability of furniture. After using adhesives, hardwood furniture is actually non-removable. Therefore, using 3D scanning and 

        reconstructing the details of the connection structure in software to achieve digital disassembly, combined with authoritative inheritors' oral and literature 

        materials, has become a more suitable method.

    5. The legislative policy during the founding period of the Qing Dynasty referred to reference to the legal system of the Han people and took into account the 

         actual situation of the Later Jin Dynasty（后金）when formulating laws, in order to formulate appropriate laws.

        吴美凤：《大圆桌的由来》[J]，《紫禁城》, 2015(11). [Baidu Scholar]

        王世襄：《明式家具研究》[M].北京：三联书店，2010. 第230-254页. [Baidu Scholar]

        朱利安·H·斯图尔特：《文化生态学》[J]，潘艳、陈洪波译, 陈淳校,《南方文物》. 2007年（2）, 第107-112页. [Baidu Scholar]

Analysis From the Perspectives of Technology and Society

As mentioned earlier, Cantonese-style furniture is shaped by the C-shaped and S-shaped curves of Baroque and Rococo styles, and the surface shape follows the curves to form smooth and vivid free-form surfaces. At the same time, it is decorated with concrete and delicate carvings. Unlike the decorative components of Ming-style furniture that are attached to the main form of architecture, the components of Cantonese-style furniture are treated as a whole with the main form, forming one or more complete and continuous curved surfaces. In this case, a design logic that prioritizes form and decoration has been formed, which is different from the design logic of Ming-style furniture, that is, from determining the structure first and then adding decoration, to considering the overall form first and then distinguishing the structure. The armrest of the long sofa in Figure 4, although its structural features are roughly distinguishable, is actually closer to a complete three-dimensional carving. In terms of visual effects, the structural features of furniture are weakened, and the morphological features are strengthened. The name selling flowers（卖花）of Cantonese-style furniture also confirms the design and production logic of placing form and decoration above function and structure.

The establishment of the new style of Cantonese-style furniture is reflected in the shaping of its appearance and is achieved through hidden connection structures, that is, using hidden tenons instead of exposed tenons. To achieve an overall curved shape and overall decoration, the connecting structure of furniture - mortise and tenon joints - must be integrated into the form or hidden behind the form to obtain a more complete, coherent, and refined appearance. It can be said that giving way to hidden tenons is a technological choice and an improvement in the process. From the perspective of cultural ecology, this also shows the phenomenon of cultural adaptation（文化适应）of technology.

In addition, using the dowel/hidden tenon is also more convenient for disassembly and transportation during export and tribute. Cantonese-style furniture was exported in large quantities overseas. Due to the long sea transportation distance, in order to maximize the use of cabin space, furniture could only be disassembled into parts and shipped in boxes, and then reassembled and installed at the destination. Due to the lower assembly difficulty of mortise and tenon compared to open tenon, and the reduction of damage to the outer surface of furniture during disassembly and assembly, it became a more suitable technical choice. In practical operation, in order to facilitate assembly after arrival, the disassembled components were often packaged according to their size numbers. In this study, we observed a double-layered circular table with numbered markings on the bottom of the table. As mentioned earlier, the round table also has movable pins that are easy to disassemble and assemble to connect the upper and lower components. During transportation, the circular tabletop could be separated from the bracket.

Whether serving the shaping of formal styles or facilitating the disassembly and assembly of long-distance transportation, the changes in the connection structure of Cantonese-style furniture are a reflection of its cultural integration and material exchange between China and foreign countries. They are evidence of its internationalization as a product, reflecting the cultural and social adaptation of technology.